THE GALAXY AND THE LIVING WORLD

This chapter explores societies that existed outside the standard four-varna system, focusing on **tribes**, **nomads**, and the changes that occurred as they interacted with settled communities and state formation. ## I. Key Terms and Concepts | Term | Definition/Description | | :--- | :--- | | **Varna** | The four-fold social division (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras) primarily followed by settled societies. | | **Jatis** | Smaller castes emerging within Varnas, often based on occupation (e.g., smiths, carpenters). Jatis, rather than Varna, became the basis of organising society. | | **Tribe** | Societies that generally did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by Brahmanas and were not divided into unequal classes. United by kinship bonds. | | **Khel** | An Ahom clan or a unit of society. | | **Garh** | A division of the Gond kingdom, typically controlled by a particular Gond clan. | | **Chaurasi**| A unit of 84 villages within a Gond 'garh'. | | **Barh...

Decoding the Undeciphered: India's Global Conference on the Harappan Script India's Ministry of Culture is set to host a major international conference in New Delhi, bringing together a diverse group of archaeologists, scientists, and scholars. Scheduled for September 11-13, 2025, the event, organized by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA), aims to present new findings and continue the centuries-long effort to decode one of history's most enduring mysteries: the Harappan script. The Enigma of the Indus Valley Script The undeciphered script of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) has puzzled scholars since its discovery by Sir John Marshall's team in the 1920s. Flourishing between 2600–1900 BCE, the IVC was the world’s largest urban culture of its time, spanning roughly 800,000 sq. km across modern-day Pakistan and northwest India. Despite its advanced urban planning, trade, and drainage systems, the written language remains a complete mystery. Inscript...

भारतीय शिक्षक की स्थितिः खोती आज़ादी और घटता सम्मान शिक्षक दिवस का उत्सव हर साल आता है और चला जाता है। इस दिन गुरु की महिमा का गुणगान होता है, उन्हें सम्मान की पदवी दी जाती है, लेकिन हकीकत में उनकी स्थिति पहले से कहीं अधिक दीन-हीन हो चुकी है। यह केवल आर्थिक तंगी की बात नहीं है, बल्कि उनकी **शैक्षणिक स्वायत्तता** और **अभिव्यक्ति की आज़ादी** की बात है, जो अब उनसे छीनी जा रही है। आज के समय में, शिक्षकों के लिए श्रद्धा के संदेश मात्र एक खोखली औपचारिकता बन गए हैं, जो उनकी वास्तविक पीड़ा को ढकने का प्रयास करते हैं। --- पाठ्यक्रम पर नियंत्रण और बाहरी हस्तक्षेप विश्वविद्यालयों में शिक्षकों को कभी यह अभिमान होता था कि अपनी कक्षा और पाठ्यक्रम पर उनका पूर्ण नियंत्रण है। लेकिन पिछले कुछ वर्षों में यह गर्व धीरे-धीरे खत्म हो गया है। अब पाठ्यक्रम का निर्धारण शीर्ष स्तर पर बैठे अधिकारियों द्वारा किया जाता है, जो अक्सर विषय विशेषज्ञ नहीं होते। अक्सर यह निर्देश 'ऊपर से' आते हैं। "भारतीय ज्ञान परंपरा" जैसे विषयों को हर पाठ्यक्रम में शामिल करने का तर्क सिर्फ़ इतना दिया जाता है कि यह **रा...

For Class 8 Social Science History, Chapter 4: Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age. How Tribal Groups Lived Jhum Cultivators: Also known as shifting cultivators, these groups lived in the hilly and forested areas of North-East and Central India. They would cut treetops to let sunlight reach the ground, burn the vegetation, and then scatter seeds for a crop. Once the crop was harvested, they would move to a new field, leaving the old one fallow for a few years to regain fertility. Hunters and Gatherers:Many tribes, such as the Khonds of Odisha, lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce. They would collectively hunt, eat fruits and roots, and use forest shrubs for medicinal purposes. They often traded forest goods for items they needed, like salt and food grains. Animal Herders: Some tribal groups were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or sheep according to the seasons. For example, the **Gaddis** of Kulu were shepherds, and the **Van Gujjars** of Pu...