CLASS 7 SOCIAL SCIENCE 2025-26 MID TERM
HISTORY
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Chapter 1: Kings and Kingdoms
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle”?**
The Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas were involved in the tripartite struggle over the control of Kanauj.
2. **What were the qualifications necessary to become a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola empire?**
The person had to be a landowner, know the Vedas, aged between 35–70, and should not have been involved in any criminal activity. Anyone failing to submit accounts was disqualified.
3. **What were the functions of the sabha?**
The sabha was responsible for managing irrigation, agricultural activities, collection of taxes, temple maintenance, and village administration.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What is a sabha in Chola rule?**
Sabha was a Brahmin village assembly that managed local issues, including temple construction and irrigation systems.
2. **Who was Rajaraja Chola I?**
Rajaraja Chola I was a powerful Chola king who expanded his empire and built the Brihadeeswara temple.
3. **What is a Prashasti?**
A Prashasti is a Sanskrit poem composed in praise of a king, inscribed on copper plates or stone.
4. **How were decisions made in the Chola sabha?**
Decisions were made by committees elected through a system called Kudavolai – a draw of lots.
5. **What is a Nadu?**
A Nadu was a group of villages. It was a major administrative unit in the Chola period.
6. **What role did temples play in Chola society?**
Temples were centers of worship, education, economy, and social gatherings in Chola society.
7. **What was the importance of Kanauj?**
Kanauj was a wealthy and strategically located city, making it the focus of the tripartite struggle.
8. **Who were samantas?**
Samantas were military chiefs under powerful kings who later gained independence and became kings.
9. **What is Ur and Nagaram?**
‘Ur’ was a village assembly of common people; ‘Nagaram’ was a traders' assembly in towns.
10. **What was the Kudavolai system?**
It was a system of election where names were written on palm leaves and chosen by draw.
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Describe the administration of the Chola dynasty.**
The Chola administration was well-organized and efficient. The kingdom was divided into provinces called Mandalams, further divided into Valanadus and Nadus. Villages had sabhas or urs, which looked after irrigation, tax collection, temples, and local disputes. A special feature was the Kudavolai system—an election system to select committee members. These village assemblies maintained records and accounts, often engraved in temples. Taxes were collected from land, crops, trade, and temples. Military commanders were appointed in frontier areas. This administrative system ensured stability and effective governance.
2. **Write a note on the achievements of Rajaraja Chola I.**
Rajaraja Chola I expanded the Chola Empire across South India, parts of Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. He strengthened the navy, encouraged trade with Southeast Asia, and established a centralized administration. His greatest architectural contribution was the construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur. Rajaraja maintained law and order, introduced efficient tax systems, and encouraged temple-centered village governance. His reign laid the foundation for cultural, military, and architectural developments that continued under his successors.
3. **What was the tripartite struggle and its impact?**
The tripartite struggle was a prolonged conflict among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas for control of Kanauj. This struggle lasted for over two centuries and weakened all the involved dynasties. Though Kanauj was never permanently held by any single power, it demonstrated the importance of trade centers and political dominance in early medieval India. The struggle also showcased the increasing ambition of regional kingdoms in asserting their authority.
4. **Explain the role of temples in the Chola period.**
Temples in the Chola period were not only places of worship but also economic, social, and educational centers. They received land grants, collected taxes, and employed many people. They preserved records and acted as banks. Temples like Brihadeeswara became symbols of royal power and cultural identity. Festivals, music, and dance were often associated with temple activities, turning temples into centers of art and learning. They played a central role in both spiritual and political life.
5. **How was village administration carried out during Chola rule?**
The Cholas had a strong village administration system. Each village had a sabha (in Brahmin villages) or an ur (common villages). These assemblies were responsible for managing resources, maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and implementing public works like irrigation. Members of committees were chosen through the Kudavolai system. Villagers had to be literate and honest to be elected. Local issues were managed without constant interference from the king, showing the importance of decentralization in Chola governance.
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## **HISTORY**
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### **Chapter 2: Delhi (12th–15th Century)**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Which ruler first established his or her capital at Delhi?**
Tomara Rajputs were the first rulers to establish their capital at Delhi in the 12th century. Later, it was taken over by the Chauhans.
2. **What was the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans?**
The language of administration under the Delhi Sultans was Persian.
3. **In whose reign did the Sultanate reach its farthest extent?**
The Sultanate reached its farthest extent during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq.
4. **Who were the authors of Tawarikh?**
The Tawarikh were written by learned men, mainly historians and scholars, who lived in Delhi during the Sultanate period.
5. **What do you know about the "iqatadars" or "iqta" system?**
The iqtadars were military commanders who were assigned territories (iqtas) to collect revenue. They had to maintain troops and submit revenue to the central administration.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **Who were the Tomaras?**
The Tomaras were a Rajput dynasty that ruled Delhi before the Chauhans. They were the first to make Delhi their capital.
2. **What is an Iqta?**
An Iqta was a piece of land assigned to nobles or soldiers, who collected its revenue in exchange for military service.
3. **What was the duty of a Muqti?**
A Muqti was an officer in charge of an Iqta. He had to collect revenue and maintain law and order in his assigned area.
4. **Name the dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate.**
The five dynasties were: Mamluk, Khalji, Tughluq, Sayyid, and Lodi.
5. **Who was Raziyya and why was she removed?**
Raziyya was the first and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. She was removed because the nobles were not comfortable being ruled by a woman.
6. **How was Delhi administered under the Sultans?**
Delhi was divided into iqtas, each under a muqti. The central administration was led by the Sultan, assisted by nobles and ministers.
7. **Who was Alauddin Khalji?**
Alauddin Khalji was a powerful Sultan known for his market reforms, efficient administration, and military expeditions in the Deccan.
8. **What were Muhammad Tughluq’s major projects?**
He attempted shifting the capital to Daulatabad and introduced token currency, but both failed and led to unrest.
9. **What are Tawarikh?**
Tawarikh are Persian historical texts written by court scholars, providing detailed records of the Sultanate period.
10. **How did the Delhi Sultanate expand its territory?**
Through military conquests and strategic alliances, the Delhi Sultans expanded into northern, central, and even parts of southern India.
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Describe the administration of the Delhi Sultanate.**
The Delhi Sultanate had a centralized administrative system. The Sultan was the supreme authority, assisted by ministers like the Wazir (finance), Ariz (army), and Qazi (judiciary). Provinces were divided into iqtas governed by muqtis, who collected revenue and maintained order. Military commanders had to maintain troops and present themselves with soldiers during inspection. Regular revenue collection and efficient tax systems were implemented. Justice was based on Islamic law. The use of Persian as an administrative language unified governance across regions. This system ensured control over a vast territory for nearly three centuries.
2. **Write a note on Raziyya Sultan.**
Raziyya Sultan was the daughter of Iltutmish and the only woman to sit on the throne of the Delhi Sultanate. She was chosen for her capability, intelligence, and administrative skills. However, her reign faced resistance from the Turkish nobles (Chalisa), who did not accept a woman ruler. Her attempts to assert independent authority and appoint non-Turks to high positions led to rebellion. Although she ruled bravely and justly, she was eventually defeated and killed. Raziyya’s reign is remembered as a bold experiment in medieval Indian history that challenged patriarchal norms.
3. **What were the major reforms of Alauddin Khalji?**
Alauddin Khalji introduced several reforms to strengthen the Sultanate. He controlled prices by regulating markets, fixed prices of essential goods, and maintained granaries. He reorganized the army by directly recruiting soldiers and paying them in cash. To check corruption, he introduced detailed records of soldiers and horses. He also maintained a spy system to keep an eye on nobles. These reforms helped Alauddin control rebellions and ensure efficient governance. His market and military reforms were pioneering for that time and reflected his administrative genius.
4. **Discuss the failures of Muhammad Tughluq’s experiments.**
Muhammad Tughluq was known for his ambitious but poorly executed projects. He shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, which caused hardship and deaths during migration. His introduction of token currency failed as people began forging coins, leading to financial collapse. His tax increase in the Doab region during famine led to a peasant revolt. While his ideas were ahead of his time, the lack of planning and foresight led to chaos and the decline of the Sultanate's authority.
5. **Explain the role of Persian in the Delhi Sultanate.**
Persian was the official language of administration in the Delhi Sultanate. All court records, correspondence, revenue documents, and historical accounts like the Tawarikh were written in Persian. It played a unifying role in governance, as the empire spread over culturally diverse regions. Persian also influenced Indian languages and literature. The use of a single administrative language ensured efficiency and coherence across the Sultanate’s bureaucracy. It also helped in promoting Persian culture and traditions in India.
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## **HISTORY**
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### **Chapter 3: The Mughals**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Who were the Mughals?**
The Mughals were descendants of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan (from mother’s side) and Timur (from father’s side). They established a powerful empire in India in the 16th century.
2. **What was the relationship between the mansabdar and the jagir?**
The mansabdar was an officer who was assigned a rank and given a jagir (land revenue assignment) to maintain troops. The revenue from the jagir was used to pay for the soldiers and expenses.
3. **What was the role of the zamindar in the Mughal administration?**
Zamindars collected taxes from peasants and submitted them to the central authority. They also maintained law and order in their area and often acted as intermediaries between the emperor and local people.
4. **How were the Mughals able to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains?**
The Mughals used a combination of military strength and diplomacy. They allowed local rulers to continue ruling under Mughal suzerainty in return for loyalty and tribute. This ensured control without direct conflict in every region.
5. **Why did the Mughals emphasize their Timurid ancestry?**
They emphasized their Timurid ancestry to gain legitimacy and prestige, as Timur was a powerful and respected conqueror. It helped the Mughals establish their royal authority and connect with Central Asian lineage.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **Who was Babur?**
Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and established Mughal rule.
2. **Who was Akbar’s regent during his early reign?**
Bairam Khan acted as Akbar’s regent and guardian during the initial years of Akbar's rule after Humayun's death.
3. **What is the Mansabdari system?**
It was a grading system introduced by Akbar to fix the rank, salary, and number of troops a Mughal officer was expected to maintain.
4. **Name two policies introduced by Akbar.**
Akbar introduced Sulh-i-kul (universal tolerance) and abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims to ensure religious harmony.
5. **What was the significance of Sulh-i-kul?**
Sulh-i-kul was a policy of peace and tolerance, allowing people of all religions to coexist. It reflected Akbar’s secular and inclusive vision.
6. **Who built the Red Fort in Delhi?**
The Red Fort was built by Emperor Shah Jahan in Delhi as a symbol of Mughal power and architectural excellence.
7. **How did Aurangzeb expand the Mughal Empire?**
Aurangzeb expanded the empire to its largest extent through military campaigns, especially in the Deccan. However, his harsh policies led to internal revolts.
8. **What was Akbar’s Ibadat Khana?**
Ibadat Khana was a hall built in Fatehpur Sikri where Akbar held discussions with scholars of different religions.
9. **Who was Jahangir?**
Jahangir was the son of Akbar and known for continuing his father’s policies. He had a deep interest in justice, art, and administration.
10. **How did Mughal rulers maintain control over distant provinces?**
They appointed trusted mansabdars and established strong administrative networks supported by revenue collection and military strength.
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain the Mansabdari system.**
The Mansabdari system was a unique feature of Mughal administration introduced by Akbar. It was a system of ranking officials (called mansabdars) based on their position (mansab) in the army and administration. Each mansabdar had to maintain a specific number of cavalrymen, depending on his rank. They were paid either in cash or by assigning them jagirs from which they collected revenue. This system allowed the emperor to have a strong and loyal army without maintaining a standing army directly. The system also created an organized bureaucracy and enabled efficient governance throughout the empire.
2. **What were the main features of Akbar’s rule?**
Akbar’s rule was marked by expansion, efficient administration, and tolerance. He introduced the Mansabdari system, centralized revenue collection (under Todar Mal), and encouraged the policy of Sulh-i-kul, promoting harmony among religions. He abolished jizya tax, encouraged interfaith dialogue, and married Rajput princesses to strengthen alliances. Akbar founded Fatehpur Sikri as his capital and patronized art, literature, and architecture. His administration included people from diverse backgrounds, showing his inclusive approach. These policies helped him build a vast, stable, and culturally rich empire that lasted for centuries.
3. **Describe the revenue system of the Mughals.**
The Mughal revenue system was organized under the leadership of Todar Mal, Akbar’s finance minister. Land was measured and classified based on fertility and productivity. Taxes were fixed accordingly and collected in cash or kind. The system was efficient and ensured regular income for the state. Zamindars acted as intermediaries who collected taxes and were allowed to retain a portion. This system was fairer than earlier methods and reduced exploitation. It became the backbone of Mughal administration and helped the empire maintain stability and growth over time.
4. **Write a note on Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance.**
Akbar’s religious policy was progressive and inclusive. He believed in Sulh-i-kul or "universal peace," promoting tolerance among different communities. He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims, stopped forced conversions, and respected all faiths. Akbar built the Ibadat Khana to encourage interfaith dialogue and invited scholars from Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. He even tried to create a new faith, Din-i-Ilahi, combining elements from various religions. His efforts reduced religious tensions and allowed the Mughal Empire to flourish culturally and politically.
5. **What led to the decline of the Mughal Empire?**
The decline of the Mughal Empire began in the late 17th century. Aurangzeb’s strict policies, religious intolerance, and constant military campaigns exhausted the treasury and caused rebellions. After his death, weak successors failed to maintain control. The empire faced invasions (like Nadir Shah's in 1739), internal revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, and Marathas, and corruption within the administration. The Mansabdari system became ineffective as jagirs were no longer profitable. Eventually, regional kingdoms gained independence, and the British took advantage of the empire’s weakness, leading to its fall.
GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 1: Inside the Earth
NCERT Questions and Answers
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What are the three layers of the earth?
The three main layers of the earth are:
a) Crust
b) Mantle
c) Core -
What is a rock?
A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust. Rocks can be of different types based on their formation. -
Name three types of rocks.
The three types of rocks are:
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks -
How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
Extrusive rocks are formed when molten lava cools and solidifies on the earth's surface. Intrusive rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies inside the earth’s crust. -
What do you mean by a rock cycle?
The rock cycle is the process by which rocks change from one type to another due to heat, pressure, and weathering, and are recycled over time. -
What are the uses of rocks?
Rocks are used for building houses, roads, and statues. They also provide minerals and fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. -
What are metamorphic rocks?
Metamorphic rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks change under heat and pressure. Example: limestone turns into marble.
Extra Questions (20–60 words)
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What is the crust made of?
The crust is made of solid rocks and forms the outermost layer of the earth. It is divided into continental and oceanic crust. -
What is the thickness of the earth’s crust?
The continental crust is about 35 km thick, while the oceanic crust is thinner, about 5 km thick. -
Name the main mineral constituents of the continental mass.
The continental mass mainly consists of silica and alumina, collectively known as sial. -
What are minerals?
Minerals are naturally occurring substances with definite chemical compositions. They are the building blocks of rocks. -
Give two examples of igneous rocks.
Granite and basalt are two common examples of igneous rocks. -
What are fossils?
Fossils are the remains or impressions of dead plants and animals found in sedimentary rocks. -
How are sedimentary rocks formed?
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and compaction of sediments over time, often in layers. -
What is the mantle composed of?
The mantle is made of semi-solid silicate materials rich in iron and magnesium. -
What is the innermost layer of the earth?
The core is the innermost layer, made mainly of nickel and iron, and is extremely hot and dense. -
Why is the inner core solid despite high temperature?
The inner core remains solid due to immense pressure, which prevents it from melting despite the heat.
Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
-
Describe the structure of the Earth.
The Earth has three main layers: the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost solid layer, made of rocks and minerals. It includes the oceanic crust (basaltic) and continental crust (granite). Below it lies the mantle, made of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium. It extends to about 2,900 km below the surface and is semi-solid. The innermost layer is the core, divided into the outer core (liquid) and inner core (solid), made mostly of nickel and iron. The core is extremely hot and is responsible for Earth’s magnetic field. These layers differ in composition, temperature, and density. -
What is the rock cycle? Explain with examples.
The rock cycle is a continuous process where rocks transform from one type to another over time. Igneous rocks, formed from cooled magma, break down through weathering into sediments, which compact to form sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks can undergo heat and pressure to become metamorphic rocks. If metamorphic rocks melt, they become magma, which cools to form igneous rocks again. For example, granite (igneous) breaks down into sediments forming sandstone (sedimentary), which can become quartzite (metamorphic). This cycle shows how rocks are constantly recycled in nature due to earth’s internal and external forces. -
Differentiate between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks form from cooling of molten magma or lava. They are of two types: intrusive (granite) and extrusive (basalt). Sedimentary rocks form by the accumulation of sediments in layers over time, often containing fossils. Examples are sandstone and limestone. Metamorphic rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are transformed by heat and pressure, such as marble (from limestone) and slate (from shale). Each type of rock differs in appearance, formation process, and use. These types are interconnected through the rock cycle, changing from one to another over millions of years. -
What are the uses of rocks and minerals in our daily life?
Rocks and minerals are essential in our daily lives. Rocks like granite and sandstone are used in construction. Marble is used for flooring and sculpture. Minerals are used to make tools, machines, jewelry, and electronics. Iron ore, coal, and bauxite are used in industries for producing steel, energy, and aluminum. Talc is used in cosmetics, and gypsum is used in cement. Even salt, a mineral, is used in cooking. Thus, rocks and minerals form the foundation of modern life, from infrastructure to household items. -
Explain how metamorphic rocks are formed. Give examples.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing igneous or sedimentary rocks undergo physical and chemical changes due to high temperature and pressure inside the Earth. These changes alter the texture, structure, and composition of the original rocks. For example, limestone becomes marble, and shale becomes slate. The process may take millions of years. Metamorphic rocks are usually harder and more durable than the original rocks. They are found in mountainous regions and are used in construction, sculpture, and decorative purposes. Their formation shows how dynamic the Earth’s internal processes are.
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## **GEOGRAPHY**
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### **Chapter 2: Our Changing Earth**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Why do the plates move?**
The movement of molten magma inside the earth causes the movement of tectonic plates.
2. **What are the three types of earthquake waves?**
The three types of earthquake waves are:
a) Primary waves (P-waves)
b) Secondary waves (S-waves)
c) Surface waves (L-waves)
3. **Which instrument is used to measure earthquakes?**
An earthquake is measured using a device called a seismograph.
4. **What are volcanoes?**
Volcanoes are openings in the earth’s crust through which molten materials, gases, ash, and steam are ejected.
5. **What are the two types of forces?**
The two types of forces acting on the earth’s surface are:
a) Endogenic forces – forces that originate from within the earth.
b) Exogenic forces – forces that originate from the earth’s surface.
6. **What is erosion?**
Erosion is the wearing away of the land surface by natural agents like water, wind, and ice.
7. **How are floodplains formed?**
Floodplains are formed when a river overflows its banks and deposits layers of fine soil and sediments on the adjacent land during floods.
8. **What are sand dunes?**
Sand dunes are hills of sand formed by the wind, commonly found in deserts.
9. **How are oxbow lakes formed?**
Oxbow lakes are formed when a river meanders and eventually cuts off a loop, leaving a crescent-shaped lake behind.
10. **What are glaciers?**
Glaciers are rivers of ice that move slowly over land and erode the landscape.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What causes earthquakes?**
Earthquakes are caused by sudden movements of the earth’s crust due to tectonic activity. When stress is released along faults or plate boundaries, it results in seismic waves.
2. **What is weathering?**
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces by the action of wind, water, temperature, or biological activity.
3. **How are deltas formed?**
Deltas are formed when rivers deposit sediments at their mouth before entering a sea or ocean, creating a triangular landform.
4. **What is deposition?**
Deposition is the laying down of sediments carried by wind, water, or ice when they lose energy.
5. **What is the difference between erosion and weathering?**
Erosion involves the movement of materials by natural agents, whereas weathering is the breakdown of rocks in situ without movement.
6. **Name some landforms created by rivers.**
Rivers create valleys, waterfalls, floodplains, meanders, oxbow lakes, and deltas.
7. **What is a sea cave?**
A sea cave is formed by the action of sea waves eroding the weaker portions of coastal rocks.
8. **How are stacks formed?**
Stacks are isolated columns of rock formed when sea arches collapse due to erosion.
9. **Name any two features formed by glaciers.**
Two landforms formed by glaciers are U-shaped valleys and moraines.
10. **What are meanders?**
Meanders are large, looping bends in a river formed due to continuous erosion and deposition.
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain the process of formation of various landforms by rivers.**
Rivers shape the landscape through erosion, transportation, and deposition. In the upper course, rivers form V-shaped valleys and waterfalls due to strong erosion. As the river moves to the middle course, lateral erosion creates meanders. Over time, meanders become exaggerated and may form oxbow lakes when cut off. In the lower course, rivers deposit fine sediments, forming floodplains and deltas. These processes constantly change the landscape. For example, the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is the world’s largest delta, formed by sediment deposition. Thus, rivers are powerful agents of both erosion and deposition.
2. **How do earthquakes occur and what are their effects?**
Earthquakes occur when stress built up in the earth’s crust is suddenly released, causing seismic waves. This usually happens along fault lines or tectonic plate boundaries. The point inside the earth where the earthquake starts is the focus; the point directly above it on the surface is the epicenter. Earthquakes can cause massive destruction—damaging buildings, roads, bridges, and sometimes leading to fires and landslides. In coastal areas, they can trigger tsunamis. The severity of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. Earthquakes are natural disasters and are unpredictable.
3. **Describe how wind shapes desert landforms.**
Wind is a powerful agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition in deserts. It erodes softer rocks, leaving behind hard rocks called mushroom rocks due to their unique shape. Wind-blown sand gets deposited to form sand dunes. Loess is another feature formed by wind deposition in semi-arid regions. Wind constantly shifts sand dunes, altering desert landscapes. Over time, strong winds can create desert pavements by removing finer particles and leaving behind larger stones. Thus, wind shapes arid landscapes through both erosion and deposition.
4. **What are glaciers and how do they modify landforms?**
Glaciers are large masses of moving ice found in polar and mountainous regions. As glaciers move, they erode rocks beneath them, creating deep, U-shaped valleys. They also transport debris which gets deposited as moraines. Glacial action carves out features like cirques, horns, and hanging valleys. When glaciers melt, they may form glacial lakes. Over time, they reshape the land significantly. The Himalayas and Alps show many glacial features. Glaciers are powerful agents of erosion, and their movement dramatically alters high-altitude landscapes.
5. **What are volcanoes and how do they affect the earth's surface?**
Volcanoes are openings in the earth’s crust through which magma, gases, ash, and lava erupt. They are mostly found along tectonic plate boundaries. When magma erupts on the surface, it cools and forms igneous rocks. Volcanic eruptions can create new landforms like volcanic cones and islands. While eruptions can be destructive—causing loss of life, damage to property, and altering climate—they also enrich soil fertility and form new minerals. Examples include Mt. Vesuvius and Mt. Fuji. Thus, volcanoes play both constructive and destructive roles in shaping the earth.
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## **GEOGRAPHY**
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### **Chapter 4: Air**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **What is the atmosphere?**
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the Earth. It consists of various gases, dust particles, and water vapour.
2. **Which two gases make up the bulk of the atmosphere?**
Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) make up the bulk of the atmosphere.
3. **Which gas creates a greenhouse effect in the atmosphere?**
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the gas responsible for creating a greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.
4. **What is weather?**
Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, wind, rainfall, etc., at a particular place and time.
5. **Name three types of rainfall.**
The three types of rainfall are:
a) Convectional rainfall
b) Orographic rainfall
c) Cyclonic rainfall
6. **What is air pressure?**
Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the Earth’s surface. It is highest at sea level and decreases with altitude.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What is the composition of the atmosphere?**
The atmosphere is made up of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other gases like carbon dioxide, argon, helium, and water vapour. It also contains dust and smoke particles.
2. **What are the layers of the atmosphere?**
The five layers of the atmosphere are:
a) Troposphere
b) Stratosphere
c) Mesosphere
d) Thermosphere
e) Exosphere
3. **What is humidity?**
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air. High humidity makes the air feel hotter and heavier.
4. **How does air pressure affect wind?**
Air moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. This movement of air causes winds.
5. **Why is oxygen important for living beings?**
Oxygen is essential for respiration in humans and animals. It also supports combustion.
6. **How is ozone important for us?**
Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun and protects living organisms from their harmful effects.
7. **What is the greenhouse effect?**
The greenhouse effect is the process by which carbon dioxide and other gases trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, keeping it warm.
8. **What is global warming?**
Global warming is the gradual increase in Earth's temperature due to excessive greenhouse gases like CO₂ caused by human activities.
9. **What is wind?**
Wind is the horizontal movement of air from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
10. **Which layer of the atmosphere is most suitable for flying airplanes?**
The stratosphere is most suitable for flying airplanes because it is stable and free from weather disturbances.
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain the composition and importance of the atmosphere.**
The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases such as carbon dioxide, helium, argon, and water vapour. Nitrogen helps in plant growth, while oxygen is vital for respiration and combustion. Carbon dioxide is used by plants in photosynthesis and contributes to the greenhouse effect. Water vapour causes cloud formation and precipitation. Dust and smoke particles help in the condensation process. The atmosphere is crucial as it protects Earth from harmful solar radiation, regulates temperature, and provides air for breathing. Without it, life would not be possible on Earth.
2. **Describe the different layers of the atmosphere.**
The atmosphere has five main layers:
* **Troposphere**: The lowest layer where weather phenomena occur.
* **Stratosphere**: Contains the ozone layer and is ideal for air travel.
* **Mesosphere**: Meteors burn in this layer.
* **Thermosphere**: Temperature increases here; auroras occur.
* **Exosphere**: The outermost layer that merges into space.
Each layer has unique characteristics and functions. For example, the stratosphere shields the Earth from UV rays through the ozone layer, while the thermosphere reflects radio waves and supports communication.
3. **How do temperature, pressure, and wind influence weather and climate?**
Temperature, pressure, and wind are key factors influencing weather and climate. Temperature affects air movement and humidity levels. Differences in temperature cause pressure variations, which in turn create winds. Wind distributes heat and moisture across the globe. For example, land and sea breezes and monsoons result from pressure and temperature differences. Storms, cyclones, and rainfall patterns are all related to the movement of air and moisture. Together, these elements determine the weather conditions at any given time and place and influence long-term climate patterns.
4. **What is the greenhouse effect and how does it affect the environment?**
The greenhouse effect is caused by gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere. It helps maintain a suitable temperature for life. However, human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have increased these gases, causing excessive warming—known as global warming. This leads to melting glaciers, rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and changes in rainfall patterns. While the greenhouse effect is natural and necessary, its intensification due to human interference is harmful to the environment and ecosystems.
5. **Discuss the importance of ozone and the threats it faces.**
Ozone is a form of oxygen found in the stratosphere. It forms the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, protecting life on Earth. Without it, UV radiation would increase skin diseases, eye problems, and harm crops and marine life. However, ozone is threatened by human-made chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which deplete the ozone layer. Ozone holes have been observed over Antarctica. International efforts, such as the Montreal Protocol, have helped reduce CFC emissions. Protecting the ozone layer is essential for environmental and human health.
---
---
## **CIVICS**
---
### **Chapter: How the State Government Works**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Use the terms ‘constituency’ and ‘representative’ to explain who an MLA is and how the person gets elected.**
An MLA (Member of the Legislative Assembly) is elected by the people from a specific area called a constituency. The candidate who gets the highest number of votes in a constituency becomes the MLA and represents the people of that area in the state legislature.
2. **How did some MLAs become Ministers? Explain.**
After elections, the political party (or coalition) with a majority of MLAs forms the government. The leader of that party becomes the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister selects some MLAs from their party to become ministers in charge of different departments like health, education, etc.
3. **Why should decisions taken by the Chief Minister and other ministers be debated in the Legislative Assembly?**
Decisions must be debated in the Assembly to ensure transparency and accountability. This allows other elected MLAs, including those in the opposition, to question the decisions and raise concerns. Debates ensure that multiple viewpoints are considered and public welfare is prioritized.
4. **What was the problem in Patalpuram? What discussion/ action was taken by the following?
a) Public meeting
b) Legislative Assembly
c) Press conference
d) Chief Minister**
* **a)** People in Patalpuram were suffering from water-borne diseases due to unclean drinking water.
* **b)** In the Assembly, the opposition raised this issue, forcing a debate.
* **c)** The Health Minister held a press conference and announced steps to solve the issue.
* **d)** The Chief Minister visited the hospital and ensured that proper actions were taken.
5. **What is the difference between the work that MLAs do in the Assembly and the work done by government departments?**
MLAs discuss and make laws or raise issues in the Assembly. Government departments implement these laws and ensure that services reach the people. MLAs represent people, while departments are responsible for executing policies and programs.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **Who is the Chief Minister?**
The Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and is responsible for overall administration and policy implementation in the state.
2. **What is the role of the opposition in the Assembly?**
The opposition questions and criticizes the government's decisions and policies, ensuring that power is not misused and that different perspectives are considered.
3. **What are government departments?**
Government departments are administrative bodies that handle specific areas like health, education, agriculture, etc., and work under respective ministers to implement state policies.
4. **What is a press conference?**
A press conference is a public event where government officials, especially ministers, answer questions from journalists to explain policies or address public concerns.
5. **How do people participate in a democracy?**
People participate by voting, attending public meetings, organizing protests, joining campaigns, and expressing their views through media and social platforms.
6. **Why is it important to have representatives in the Assembly?**
Representatives voice the concerns of the people in the Assembly, make laws, and ensure that public issues are addressed by the government.
7. **What is the role of the health department?**
The health department is responsible for maintaining public health facilities, controlling diseases, providing clean drinking water, and improving healthcare services.
8. **What does it mean to be in power?**
Being in power means holding a position in the government, like a minister or Chief Minister, with the authority to make decisions and implement policies.
9. **How do MLAs interact with the people?**
MLAs meet with the public in their constituencies, listen to grievances, attend local meetings, and raise these concerns in the Legislative Assembly.
10. **What happens if the government does not work properly?**
People can protest, approach the media, or vote the government out in the next election. The opposition can also question the government in the Assembly.
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain the process by which a state government is formed after elections.**
In a state election, people vote in their constituencies for candidates. The candidate with the highest votes becomes the MLA. The political party or alliance that secures a majority of MLAs forms the government. The leader of this majority party becomes the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister chooses a group of MLAs as ministers, assigning them specific departments. These ministers manage departments such as health, education, and transport. The Governor formally appoints the Chief Minister and ministers. The government is then responsible for making laws, planning development, and running state administration.
2. **Describe the role of an MLA both in and outside the Legislative Assembly.**
In the Legislative Assembly, an MLA participates in debates, raises questions, and votes on bills. They represent the views and needs of the people in their constituency. Outside the Assembly, MLAs interact with citizens, attend public functions, oversee local development projects, and ensure government services reach people. They also play a vital role in mediating between the public and the government. MLAs are often approached to solve problems related to roads, schools, hospitals, and water supply. Their dual role helps keep the government accountable and responsive to people’s needs.
3. **What steps were taken by the government to resolve the health crisis in Patalpuram?**
When the health crisis in Patalpuram was highlighted in the Assembly, the opposition demanded action. The Health Minister responded by holding a press conference to announce measures such as sending doctors, improving water facilities, and supplying medicines. The Chief Minister visited the area and ensured the necessary arrangements were made. The health department worked with local officials to clean water sources and treat patients. These steps showed how government departments function under the leadership of ministers to solve real-life problems. The crisis also emphasized the importance of people's participation and media.
4. **Why is debate in the Assembly important in a democracy?**
Debate in the Assembly ensures that decisions are discussed openly, and all sides of an issue are heard. It allows MLAs from the opposition and ruling party to present their views and question government policies. Debates increase transparency, hold ministers accountable, and help improve the quality of laws and programs. They prevent misuse of power by encouraging critical thinking and scrutiny. This process strengthens democracy by giving voice to the people’s concerns and ensuring laws are not passed without proper discussion and analysis.
5. **How do the Chief Minister and ministers work with departments to run the state?**
The Chief Minister, along with the Council of Ministers, supervises the working of various government departments. Each minister is assigned a department like health, education, or agriculture. They plan budgets, initiate programs, and ensure policies are implemented. Departments are run by government officers and employees who carry out day-to-day tasks. Ministers give direction, review progress, and solve problems raised by MLAs and the public. The coordination between ministers and departments ensures that public services are delivered efficiently and state administration runs smoothly.
---
---
## **Civics**
---
### **Chapter: Women Change the World**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **How do you think stereotypes affect women’s access to education?**
Stereotypes often suggest that girls are less capable or do not need education because they are expected to become homemakers. Such beliefs limit opportunities for girls, discourage families from investing in their education, and lead to fewer women in professional fields.
2. **Can you describe two methods of struggle that women’s movements used to raise issues? If you had to organize a struggle against stereotypes, what method would you choose? Why?**
Two methods used by women’s movements are:
* Campaigns: Protests, public speeches, and rallies to demand change.
* Raising awareness: Through songs, street plays, and media to inform people.
If I had to organize a struggle, I would choose raising awareness, as it helps change people’s attitudes from the ground up.
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What is a stereotype?**
A stereotype is a fixed idea or belief about a person or group that is often incorrect. For example, believing that only men can be scientists is a gender stereotype.
2. **How has the role of women in society changed over time?**
Over time, women have gained access to education, employment, and leadership roles. Social reforms, legal rights, and women's movements have helped them break barriers and demand equality.
3. **Why are fewer girls enrolled in school than boys in some parts of India?**
In some regions, poverty, early marriage, household responsibilities, and gender bias lead to fewer girls being sent to school compared to boys.
4. **Name a few women who broke social barriers.**
Some inspiring women include:
* Kalpana Chawla (astronaut)
* Kiran Bedi (first woman IPS officer)
* Laxmi Lakra (first Indian woman train driver)
5. **What is the purpose of women's movements?**
Women’s movements work to fight discrimination, promote gender equality, and ensure justice for women in every aspect of life.
6. **Why is education important for women?**
Education empowers women to make informed decisions, gain employment, fight discrimination, and contribute to the development of society.
7. **How do women challenge gender roles through work?**
By entering male-dominated fields like engineering, science, law, and driving, women prove that they are equally capable, breaking traditional gender roles.
8. **What is the significance of street plays in women’s movements?**
Street plays are used to spread awareness in a simple, emotional, and engaging way, especially among people who may not read newspapers or attend rallies.
9. **What are some challenges working women face today?**
Women face unequal pay, safety concerns, lack of childcare, and workplace harassment, which make it difficult for them to balance work and home.
10. **What laws support women’s rights in India?**
Laws like the Domestic Violence Act, Equal Remuneration Act, and laws against dowry and sexual harassment support women’s rights and safety.
---
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain how education helps women break stereotypes and achieve equality.**
Education helps women understand their rights, develop confidence, and gain the skills necessary for employment and independence. An educated woman is more likely to challenge traditional roles and resist discrimination. For instance, when girls are educated, they can become doctors, scientists, or leaders—roles once thought suitable only for men. Education changes mindsets in families and communities, promoting equality. It also equips women to raise their voices against injustice and to participate in the workforce, governance, and social reforms. Overall, education is a powerful tool in breaking the cycle of inequality and stereotypes.
2. **Describe the impact of women’s movements in India with examples.**
Women’s movements in India have played a key role in bringing gender equality. Campaigns have led to laws against domestic violence, dowry, and workplace harassment. For example, the protest after the 2012 Delhi gang-rape led to stricter laws on women’s safety. Movements also campaign for equal pay and representation in politics. In villages, grassroots women’s groups demand better health, education, and legal services. They use rallies, songs, street plays, and media to raise awareness. These efforts have empowered thousands of women to speak up and claim their rights, transforming their lives and society.
3. **How do stereotypes limit opportunities for both boys and girls?**
Stereotypes not only affect girls but also boys. For example, boys are expected to be strong and not show emotions, while girls are expected to be quiet and homely. These fixed ideas limit choices. Girls may not be encouraged to play sports or become engineers. Boys may be discouraged from becoming dancers or nurses. Such beliefs stop children from exploring their true interests and talents. Education and awareness can break these stereotypes. When both boys and girls are free to choose their path, they can grow into confident, successful individuals, benefiting society as a whole.
4. **Discuss how women have entered non-traditional fields and what challenges they face.**
Women are entering fields once dominated by men, such as the army, aviation, police, engineering, and politics. Examples include Kalpana Chawla (astronaut) and Laxmi Lakra (train driver). These women have broken barriers and become role models. However, they face many challenges: unequal pay, discrimination, lack of family support, and safety issues. They often need to work harder to prove themselves. Despite obstacles, many continue to succeed and inspire others. Support from families, equal opportunities, and better laws can help more women enter such fields and thrive.
5. **What role do campaigns and awareness programs play in changing society’s view of women?**
Campaigns and awareness programs educate people about gender equality and the importance of women’s rights. They challenge harmful beliefs and stereotypes by spreading real stories of successful women. Programs use media, songs, posters, street plays, and discussions to reach a wide audience. For example, campaigns about girls' education have led to increased enrollment in schools. Media campaigns like “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao” have made a big difference. These efforts help people question old norms and accept new ideas. As awareness grows, society becomes more supportive of women’s empowerment and equal opportunities.
---
---
## **Geography**
---
### **Chapter: Our Changing Earth**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Answer the following questions briefly:**
**a) Why do the plates move?**
The plates move because of the movement of molten magma inside the earth. This movement generates convection currents, which push the plates slowly.
**b) What are exogenic and endogenic forces?**
Forces originating from within the earth are called endogenic forces (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes), while those acting on the surface are called exogenic forces (e.g., erosion, weathering).
**c) What is erosion?**
Erosion is the wearing away of the land surface by agents like water, wind, and ice.
**d) How are flood plains formed?**
Flood plains are formed when rivers overflow their banks and deposit layers of fine soil and sediments along the banks during floods.
**e) What are sand dunes?**
Sand dunes are hills of sand formed by the wind in desert regions.
**f) How are ox-bow lakes formed?**
Ox-bow lakes are formed when a meander of a river is cut off from the main river, creating a crescent-shaped lake.
2. **Tick the correct answer:**
a) The process of wearing away of the landscape by different agents is called:
* (✓) Erosion
* ( ) Weathering
* ( ) Deposition
b) Which of the following is an exogenic force?
* (✓) Sea waves
* ( ) Earthquake
* ( ) Volcano
c) Ox-bow lakes are formed by:
* ( ) Glaciers
* (✓) Rivers
* ( ) Wind
3. **Match the following:**
| Column A | Column B |
| ---------- | ---------------------------------- |
| Glacier | River of ice |
| Meanders | Loop-like bend of river |
| Beach | Sea shore made of sand |
| Sand dunes | Low hill-like structure in deserts |
| Waterfall | Sudden fall of water from height |
4. **Give reasons:**
**a) Some rocks have a shape of mushroom.**
In deserts, winds erode the lower part of the rocks more than the upper part due to suspended sand particles. This results in mushroom-shaped rocks.
**b) Flood plains are very fertile.**
Flood plains are fertile because the floodwater deposits fine soil and sediments over them, enriching the soil with nutrients.
**c) Sea caves are turned into stacks.**
Continuous erosion by sea waves enlarges sea caves, eventually breaking the roof and forming a sea arch. When the arch collapses, a stack is left behind.
---
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What is a volcano?**
A volcano is a vent in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly, usually due to endogenic forces.
2. **Name some landforms formed by rivers.**
Rivers create landforms such as valleys, waterfalls, meanders, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, and deltas through erosion and deposition.
3. **What is weathering?**
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks on the Earth's surface due to natural factors like temperature changes, water, and biological activity.
4. **What are glaciers and how do they shape land?**
Glaciers are slow-moving rivers of ice. They erode the land beneath them and form U-shaped valleys, moraines, and other glacial landforms.
5. **What are sea arches and stacks?**
Sea arches form when sea caves on opposite sides of a headland meet. If the arch collapses, the remaining pillar is called a sea stack.
6. **What is deposition?**
Deposition is the laying down of sediments carried by wind, water, or ice, which creates landforms like sand dunes and deltas.
7. **What are meanders?**
Meanders are loop-like bends in rivers formed due to lateral erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank.
8. **How do waves shape coastal landforms?**
Sea waves erode rocks along the coast to form features like sea cliffs, sea caves, arches, and stacks. Deposition creates beaches.
9. **What are the agents of erosion?**
The main agents of erosion are rivers, winds, glaciers, and sea waves. They wear away the Earth's surface and transport sediments.
10. **What is a delta and where is it found?**
A delta is a triangular landform formed at the mouth of a river due to the deposition of sediments. It is usually found where a river meets the sea.
---
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain how river water shapes the landscape through erosion and deposition.**
Rivers are powerful agents of erosion and deposition. In their upper course, rivers cut through mountains, forming V-shaped valleys and waterfalls by eroding rock. As they move downstream, rivers begin to meander and form ox-bow lakes. In the plains, rivers deposit fine soil, forming fertile flood plains. Near the mouth, deposition leads to the creation of deltas. These processes continuously change the landscape. The balance between erosion and deposition shapes river valleys, affects agriculture, and determines settlement patterns. Rivers are essential in forming new landforms and enriching soil along their course.
2. **Describe the process of wind erosion and deposition in deserts.**
In desert areas, strong winds lift and transport loose sand and dust. This process is called wind erosion. The sand particles hit rocks and gradually wear them down, forming mushroom rocks. Wind also forms landforms like sand dunes and loess. When wind speed decreases, it drops the sand, creating hill-like dunes. Over time, these dunes shift positions due to continuous wind action. Wind erosion and deposition are slow but powerful processes that shape the arid desert landscape, affecting vegetation, settlements, and travel routes. These forces act mainly in dry, sandy, and open regions.
3. **How do glaciers shape the land?**
Glaciers move slowly over the land like rivers of ice. As they move, they erode rocks and soil beneath them through plucking and abrasion. Glaciers carve out U-shaped valleys, form moraines (ridges of debris), and create lakes. When glaciers melt, they leave behind sediment and water, shaping new landforms. These features are commonly seen in mountainous areas like the Himalayas. Glacial erosion is one of the most powerful forces shaping high-altitude terrain. It changes the landscape dramatically over time and influences river formation and water availability in downstream areas.
4. **What are the differences between endogenic and exogenic forces? Explain with examples.**
Endogenic forces originate from inside the Earth. They are responsible for the formation of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes. These forces uplift or break the Earth’s crust. For example, the Himalayas were formed due to endogenic movements.
Exogenic forces work on the Earth’s surface. They include weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition by water, wind, glaciers, and sea waves. These forces wear down highlands and fill lowlands. For instance, rivers form valleys and deltas, and winds create sand dunes. Together, these forces continuously shape the Earth's surface.
5. **Describe the different landforms formed by sea waves.**
Sea waves constantly hit the coasts, causing erosion and shaping landforms. They create sea cliffs by eroding rocky shores. Continuous erosion forms sea caves. When caves on opposite sides meet, a sea arch is formed. Over time, the arch collapses and leaves behind a pillar called a sea stack. The waves also deposit sand, forming beaches. These landforms change with the tides and storms. Sea waves also contribute to coastal erosion and can impact human settlements. Understanding these landforms helps us plan coastal development and protect the environment.
---
---
## **Geography**
---
### **Chapter: Air**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Answer the following questions briefly:**
**a) What is the atmosphere?**
The blanket of air that surrounds the Earth is called the atmosphere.
**b) Which two gases make up the bulk of the atmosphere?**
Nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) make up the bulk of the atmosphere.
**c) Which gas creates a greenhouse effect in the atmosphere?**
Carbon dioxide creates a greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.
**d) What is weather?**
Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind at a particular place and time.
**e) Name three types of rainfall.**
The three types of rainfall are:
* Convectional rainfall
* Orographic rainfall
* Cyclonic rainfall
**f) What is air pressure?**
Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the Earth’s surface.
2. **Tick the correct answer:**
a) Which of the following gases protects us from harmful sun rays?
* ( ) Carbon dioxide
* (✓) Ozone
* ( ) Nitrogen
b) The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is:
* (✓) Nitrogen
* ( ) Oxygen
* ( ) Carbon dioxide
c) Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is free from clouds?
* ( ) Troposphere
* (✓) Stratosphere
* ( ) Mesosphere
d) As we go up the layers of the atmosphere, the pressure:
* ( ) Increases
* ( ) Remains the same
* (✓) Decreases
e) When precipitation comes down to the earth in the liquid form, it is called:
* ( ) Cloud
* (✓) Rain
* ( ) Snow
3. **Match the following:**
| Column A | Column B |
| ----------- | --------------------- |
| Trade winds | Permanent wind |
| Loo | Local wind |
| Monsoon | Seasonal wind |
| Wind | Movement of air |
| Barometer | Measures air pressure |
---
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What is the composition of the atmosphere?**
The atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with small amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide, argon, helium, ozone, and water vapour.
2. **What is the importance of oxygen?**
Oxygen is essential for the survival of living organisms as it is used in respiration and helps in burning.
3. **Why is carbon dioxide important in the atmosphere?**
Carbon dioxide helps plants in photosynthesis and also traps heat, thus playing a role in maintaining Earth’s temperature through the greenhouse effect.
4. **What are local winds? Give an example.**
Local winds are winds that blow over a small area for a short time. Example: Loo, a hot, dry wind in north India during summer.
5. **What is precipitation?**
Precipitation is the falling of moisture from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, hail, or sleet.
6. **How is air pressure measured?**
Air pressure is measured using an instrument called a barometer.
7. **Name the layers of the atmosphere.**
The main layers of the atmosphere are:
* Troposphere
* Stratosphere
* Mesosphere
* Thermosphere
* Exosphere
8. **Why is the troposphere important?**
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather changes occur and where all living beings exist.
9. **What are permanent winds?**
Permanent winds blow constantly in the same direction throughout the year, such as trade winds, westerlies, and polar winds.
10. **What is the role of the ozone layer?**
The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun and protects living beings on Earth from health hazards.
---
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain the structure of the atmosphere.**
The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on temperature. The **troposphere** is the lowest layer where weather changes occur and life exists. Above it is the **stratosphere**, which contains the ozone layer and is free from clouds, making it ideal for flying airplanes. Next is the **mesosphere**, where temperatures drop and meteors burn up. The **thermosphere** lies above and has very high temperatures; it’s also where the Northern Lights (auroras) occur. The outermost layer is the **exosphere**, where air is extremely thin, and it merges with space. Each layer plays a specific role in maintaining life on Earth.
2. **Describe the importance of the atmosphere in sustaining life.**
The atmosphere protects life on Earth by regulating temperature, providing oxygen and carbon dioxide, and shielding us from harmful solar radiation. Oxygen is necessary for breathing, while carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis. The ozone layer filters ultraviolet rays, and the greenhouse gases trap heat to maintain the Earth's average temperature. Without the atmosphere, Earth would be too cold at night and too hot during the day. It also helps in the water cycle through evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Thus, the atmosphere plays a crucial role in weather, climate, and overall sustainability of life.
3. **What are the different types of rainfall and how do they occur?**
There are three main types of rainfall:
* **Convectional rainfall** occurs when the land surface heats up, causing air to rise and cool, leading to condensation and rainfall.
* **Orographic rainfall** happens when moist winds are forced to rise over mountains, cooling and causing precipitation.
* **Cyclonic (frontal) rainfall** is caused by the meeting of warm and cold air masses during cyclones or depressions. The warm air rises, condenses, and results in rainfall.
Each type of rainfall occurs under different conditions and affects regions differently, influencing agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems.
4. **How do winds influence weather and climate?**
Winds are moving air that help in distributing heat and moisture across the Earth. **Permanent winds** like trade winds and westerlies blow regularly and influence global climate. **Seasonal winds**, such as monsoons, bring heavy rain and are vital for agriculture in many countries. **Local winds** like the loo affect daily weather. Winds carry clouds, which bring rain, and they help moderate temperature by moving warm or cold air. Strong winds during storms and cyclones can also cause damage. Thus, winds are an important component of weather and climate systems.
5. **Discuss the effects of global warming due to changes in the atmosphere.**
Global warming is caused by the increased concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. These gases trap heat and raise the Earth’s average temperature. The effects include melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and disturbed rainfall patterns. Forests are drying, and wildlife habitats are disappearing. Human health is also affected due to heatwaves and air pollution. To reduce global warming, we must use renewable energy, plant trees, reduce carbon emissions, and promote sustainable living. It is vital to preserve the atmosphere for future generations.
---
---
## **Civics**
---
### **Chapter: How Do State Governments Work?**
#### NCERT Questions and Answers
1. **Use the terms ‘constituency’ and ‘represent’ to explain who an MLA is and how is the person elected.**
An MLA (Member of Legislative Assembly) is a representative elected by the people from a particular area called a **constituency**. During state elections, people vote for their preferred candidate, and the one receiving the majority of votes becomes the MLA. MLAs **represent** the interests of their constituencies in the Legislative Assembly.
2. **How did some MLAs become ministers? Explain.**
After elections, the political party with a majority of MLAs forms the government. The head of the government, called the Chief Minister, selects a few MLAs from their party or coalition and appoints them as ministers. These ministers are given specific departments like health, education, etc., to manage.
3. **Why should decisions taken by the Chief Minister and other ministers be debated in the Legislative Assembly?**
Debates ensure transparency and accountability. They allow MLAs from different constituencies to question and discuss decisions taken by the ministers. This helps prevent misuse of power and ensures that decisions benefit the people and are made after considering various perspectives.
4. **What was the problem in Patalpuram? What discussion/actions were taken by the following:**
* **Public meeting**
* **Legislative Assembly**
* **Press conference**
* **Chief Minister**
**Answer:**
Patalpuram faced a serious health crisis due to a shortage of clean water and poor sanitation, which led to the spread of diseases.
* In the **public meeting**, local people protested and raised demands for better sanitation.
* In the **Legislative Assembly**, the issue was raised and debated by MLAs.
* The **Health Minister’s press conference** announced the steps the government would take to improve the situation.
* The **Chief Minister** visited the area and promised proper funds, actions, and monitoring to resolve the issue.
5. **What is the difference between the work that MLAs do in the Assembly and the work done by government departments?**
MLAs raise issues and debate laws in the Assembly. They represent public interests and help pass policies. Government departments, on the other hand, implement these policies, manage resources, and ensure public services like health, education, and water supply are properly provided.
---
#### Extra Questions (20–60 words)
1. **What is the role of the Chief Minister?**
The Chief Minister is the head of the state government. They lead the Council of Ministers, make decisions on governance, and coordinate with departments to ensure policies are implemented effectively.
2. **What is the purpose of the Legislative Assembly?**
The Legislative Assembly is where MLAs meet to discuss issues, make laws, and pass the state budget. It acts as a platform for debates and decision-making.
3. **How does the opposition play a role in the Assembly?**
The opposition questions the ruling party, challenges their decisions, and highlights public issues. They help keep the government accountable and ensure fair governance.
4. **Why are press conferences important in government communication?**
Press conferences help ministers explain government decisions to the public, increase transparency, and inform citizens about important policies and actions.
5. **What is meant by ‘majority’ in government formation?**
When a party wins more than half of the total seats in the Assembly, it has a majority. This enables them to form the government.
6. **What is a department in the state government?**
A department is a specific division of government, like health, education, or water, responsible for carrying out related services and programs.
7. **Who heads a government department?**
Each department is headed by a Minister, supported by government officers and staff who manage its daily operations.
8. **How do MLAs raise public issues?**
MLAs raise public issues during Assembly sessions through speeches, debates, or by asking questions to ministers.
9. **What happens when a ruling party fails to act responsibly?**
If a ruling party fails in governance, it can lose public support and be voted out in the next elections.
10. **How are government funds used?**
Government funds are used to provide public services like health care, sanitation, roads, and education, through various departments.
---
#### Long Answer Questions (100+ words)
1. **Explain how a state government is formed and how it functions.**
A state government is formed after elections are held in different constituencies. The party that wins the majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly forms the government. The leader of this party becomes the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister selects ministers for different departments. The state government is responsible for providing public services like health, education, water, roads, and sanitation. Laws are discussed and passed in the Assembly, and departments implement them. The government must respond to public needs and remain accountable to both the Assembly and the people.
2. **Discuss the importance of debates in the Legislative Assembly.**
Debates in the Legislative Assembly are crucial for democracy. They allow MLAs from different regions to voice concerns, suggest improvements, and question government decisions. Through debate, various viewpoints are considered before passing any law or policy. It also helps prevent corruption and misuse of power. Opposition parties play a key role by holding the ruling government accountable. These discussions ensure that the government remains answerable to the public, and policies are in the interest of all, not just a few.
3. **How do different parts of the government respond to a crisis like in Patalpuram?**
In Patalpuram, when people suffered due to poor sanitation and lack of clean water, they organized protests. MLAs raised the issue in the Assembly. The Health Minister responded with a press conference, promising action. The Chief Minister visited the area and instructed departments to take immediate steps. Government departments then worked to improve water supply and sanitation. This shows how the public, elected representatives, and administrative departments work together in a democracy to resolve public issues and ensure well-being.
4. **Describe the relationship between MLAs and government departments.**
MLAs represent people and raise public issues in the Assembly. Once a policy or law is passed, government departments are responsible for its implementation. For example, if the Health Minister decides to improve hospital services, the health department staff ensures the changes are made. MLAs monitor the work, provide feedback from their constituencies, and push for improvements. The departments follow administrative rules, manage budgets, and report progress. This coordination is essential for good governance and service delivery.
5. **What role do citizens play in making state governments work effectively?**
Citizens play a vital role by voting in elections, choosing their MLAs, and participating in democratic processes like public meetings and protests. They can raise issues, write to MLAs, and use media to demand action. A vigilant public keeps MLAs and ministers accountable. Citizens must also follow laws and use public services responsibly. When people stay informed and involved, the government becomes more transparent, efficient, and responsive. Democracy thrives when citizens actively engage with the system and demand good governance.
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