THE GALAXY AND THE LIVING WORLD

Class 8 Geography: Chapter - Industries This chapter introduces students to the concept of industries, their classification, factors influencing their location, the industrial system, and major industrial regions, with case studies of key industries like iron and steel, cotton textile, and information technology. Important Terms:  * Industry: An economic activity concerned with the production of goods, extraction of minerals, or the provision of services.  * Manufacturing: The process of converting raw materials into finished products of more value to people. Also referred to as secondary activities.  * Raw Materials: Basic materials used in an industry that are transformed into finished products.  * Inputs: All the resources required to produce a product, including raw materials, labour, land, capital, power, transport, and other infrastructure.  * Processes: The various activities involved in transforming raw materials into finished products (e.g., spinning, w...

 Women, Caste, and Reform Notes Women and Reform: Raja Ram Mohan Roy's efforts to promote women's education and abolish practices like sati Caste and Reform: The impact of British rule on the caste system and efforts of reformers like Jyotirao Phule and Periyar to challenge and reform the caste system Role of Reformers: Promoting women's education and rights, and challenging caste-based discrimination Important Terms Sati: A practice where a widow was expected to immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre Arya Samaj: A Hindu reform movement that sought to promote the Vedas and challenge caste-based discrimination Brahmo Samaj: A social and religious reform movement that aimed to promote monotheism and challenge caste-based discrimination Prarthana Samaj: A social reform organization that aimed to promote social and religious reform Questions and Answers 1. Who was Raja Ram Mohan Roy? Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a prominent social reformer who worked to abolish practices ...

 Revolt of 1857 Notes Causes of the Revolt - Political Causes:     - Annexation policies like the Doctrine of Lapse, which allowed the British to annex Indian states if the ruler did not have a male heir     - Insult of Bahadur Shah: The Governor-General told the Mughal Emperor that he would be the last emperor of India     - Unjustified annexation of Awadh, which annoyed the people and the sepoys - Economic Causes:     - Heavy taxation and exploitation of resources     - Destruction of traditional industries     - Land revenue policies like the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems heavily burdened the peasants - Social and Religious Causes:     - Introduction of Western Education System     - British interference in Indian social and religious customs     - The British were converting Indians into Christians by promising them many concessions     - The English passe...

 Our Changing Earth Notes The Earth's surface is constantly changing due to various forces like erosion, weathering, and plate tectonics. These changes can be slow or sudden, and they shape the Earth's landscape over time. The movement of tectonic plates can cause earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the formation of mountains. Important details about the Earth's surface changes include the role of wind and water in shaping the landscape through erosion and deposition, and the different types of plate boundaries. Important Terms Erosion: The process of wearing away or removal of soil, rock, or other materials from the Earth's surface. Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles due to exposure to environmental factors like temperature, wind, and water. Plate Tectonics: The theory that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into large plates that move relative to each other. Earthquake: A sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere, causing shak...

Class 8 History Chapter 2: From Trade to Territory - The Company Establishes Power Notes The East India Company came to India for trade purposes but eventually established its power through various means. The company's expansion led to conflicts with local rulers, including the Bengal Nawabs. The Battle of Plassey marked the beginning of British conquest in India. Important Terms Diwani: The right to collect revenue, granted to the East India Company by the Mughal Emperor. Subsidiary Alliance: A system where Indian rulers were not allowed to have independent armed forces and were protected by the Company. Doctrine of Lapse: A policy introduced by Lord Dalhousie, where if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, their kingdom would be annexed by the Company. Questions and Answers What attracted European trading companies to India? European trading companies were drawn to India's wealth, rich commodities, and high demand for goods like spices, silk, and precious stones. What wer...

 Class 8 Geography Chapter 2: Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation, and Wildlife Resources Land - Land Use: Land is used for various purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads, and setting up industries. - Factors Determining Land Use: Topography, soil, climate, minerals, and availability of water are key factors. - Land Division: Private land (owned by individuals) and community land (owned by the community for common uses). Soil - Soil Formation: Influenced by parent rock, climate, relief, flora, fauna, and microorganisms. - Soil Degradation: Caused by soil erosion and depletion. - Soil Conservation Methods:     - Mulching: Covering bare ground with organic matter to retain moisture.     - Terrace Farming: Creating flat steps on steep slopes to reduce runoff and erosion.     - Intercropping: Growing different crops in alternate rows to protect soil. Water - Water Conservation: Essential due to limited freshwater resources...

 Chapter 2: New Kings and Kingdoms of Class 7 Social Science History Overview The chapter explores the emergence of new kingdoms in India after the decline of the Gupta Empire, focusing on major dynasties, their administration, and cultural achievements. Major Dynasties - Palas:     - Ruled over Bengal and Bihar     - Notable rulers: Gopala, Dharmapala, and Devapala     - Known for: Buddhist patronage, establishment of Vikramshila University - Pratiharas:     - Ruled over parts of northern India     - Notable rulers: Nagabhata II and Mihira Bhoja     - Known for: Military strength, resistance against Arab invasions - Rashtrakutas:     - Ruled over the Deccan region     - Notable rulers: Dantidurga and Krishna I     - Known for: Kailasa Temple at Ellora, military conquests - Cholas:     - Emerged in the 9th century in South India     - Notable rulers: Rajaraja Chola I and Ra...

सउदी अरब में 8,000 साल पुराने नवपाषाण मंदिर की खोज सऊदी अरब के रियाद के दक्षिण-पश्चिम में स्थित अल-फव में पुरातात्विक उत्खनन से 8,000 साल पुराने नवपाषाण मंदिर और एक प्राचीन शहर की महत्वपूर्ण खोज हुई है। यह विशाल खोज अरब प्रायद्वीप में रहने वाली प्राचीन सभ्यताओं पर नया प्रकाश डालती है। प्रमुख खोजें:  प्राचीन मंदिर: तुवाईक पर्वत (जिसे खशेम करिया भी कहा जाता है) के किनारे एक पत्थर के मंदिर के अवशेष मिले हैं, जिसके बारे में माना जाता है कि यह अनुष्ठानों और समारोहों का केंद्र था। हालांकि मंदिर का अधिकांश हिस्सा नष्ट हो गया है, पत्थर के अवशेष और एक वेदी के कुछ हिस्से प्राचीन पूजा पद्धतियों के पुख्ता सबूत पेश करते हैं।  देवता कहल: भक्ति संबंधी शिलालेख मिले हैं, जिनमें से एक जाबल लाहाक अभयारण्य में कहल को संबोधित है, जिसे अल-फव के एक स्थानीय देवता के रूप में पहचाना गया है। ये शिलालेख समुदाय की धार्मिक मान्यताओं के बारे में जानकारी प्रदान करते हैं। कुछ शोधकर्ता इन शिलालेखों के आधार पर अल-जरहा शहर के साथ संभावित व्यापारिक और आर्थिक संबंधों या यहां तक कि धार्मिक सहिष्णुता के बारे में भी ...